Environmental Science Methods

This book is an introduction to a range of methods and techniques used in the scientific study of the rocks, soils, atmosphere, waters and living organisms of the Earth, and of the relationships of these environmental factors with human activities. It is intended to provide a selection of methods for students taking university courses in geography, geology, meteorology, hydrology, soil science, ecology and other allied environmental sciences. The contributors are all members of the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK, and the book has developed from part of our course for first year students. It reflects our belief that students of vast complex environmental systems should begin their work with a panoramic view, whatever their ultimate specialization. The emphasis is therefore on breadth of treatment and on the connections between the various sciences. We have summarized and simplified in order to supply a collection of methods that can be managed by a beginning student. We start from basic principles and do not assume that the reader already has a strong scientific background. Eleven chapters follow, each dealing with a group of closely related methods and techniques. They may be taken in any order, although there are many cross references which demonstrate that the subjects covered are not eleven isolated techniques but a web of related principles. The first three topics illustrate the point.

Inhalt
1 Measurement.- 1.1 Measurement scales.- 1.2 Physical quantities.- 1.3 Accuracy and errors.- 1.4 Sampling.- 1.5 Further reading.- 2 Mathematics.- 2.1 Basic algebra.- 2.2 Vectors.- 2.3 Functions and graphs.- 2.4 Rate of change, gradients and limits.- 2.5 Differentiation.- 2.6 Maxima and minima: optimization.- 2.7 Partial differentiation.- 2.8 Anti-derivatives and integration.- 2.9 Equations of motion.- 2.10 Differential equations.- 2.11 Further examples of integration in mechanics.- 2.12 Further reading.- 3 Statistics.- 3.1 Describing data.- 3.2 Probability and the normal distribution.- 3.3 Hypothesis testing.- 3.4 Testing differences between means.- 3.5 The analysis of variance.- 3.6 The chi-square test.- 3.7 Correlation.- 3.8 Regression.- 3.9 Non-linear relationships.- 3.10 Multiple regression and correlation.- 3.11 Further statistics.- 3.12 Further reading.- 4 Computing.- 4.1 What are computers?.- 4.2 Using the computer.- 4.3 Data analysis using computers.- 4.4 Non-package computing.- 4.5 Glossary of computer terminology.- 4.6 Further reading.- 5 Laboratory techniques.- 5.1 Tools of the trade.- 5.2 Standard chemical techniques.- 5.3 Laboratory analysis of soils and sediments.- 5.4 Further reading.- 6 Microscopy.- 6.1 Components and operation of microscopes.- 6.2 Biological microscopy.- 6.3 Minerals in polarized light: the petrological microscope.- 6.4 The identification of minerals in thin section.- 6.5 Identification of detrital grains.- 6.6 Further reading.- 7 Remote sensing.- 7.1 Why remote sensing?.- 7.2 The electromagnetic spectrum.- 7.3 Remote sensing techniques.- 7.4 Viewing aerial photographs.- 7.5 Interpretation of aerial photographs.- 7.6 Further reading.- 8 Maps.- 8.1 World maps.- 8.2 Local maps.- 8.3 Map conventions.- 8.4 Measurements from maps.- 8.5 Geological maps.- 8.6 Weather maps.- 8.7 Further reading.- 9 Surveying.- 9.1 Instruments.- 9.2 Location of a point-resection.- 9.3 Location of points-traverses.- 9.4 Height measurement.- 9.5 Construction of a map.- 9.6 Organization and planning of a survey.- 9.7 Further reading.- 10 Social surveys.- 10.1 Types of social survey.- 10.2 Planning the survey.- 10.3 Questionnaire design.- 10.4 The selection of respondents.- 10.5 Carrying out the survey.- 10.6 After the survey.- 10.7 Further reading.- 11 Project evaluation.- 11.1 Cost benefit analysis.- 11.2 An example of cost benefit analysis.- 11.3 Environmental impact assessment.- 11.4 Impact assessment techniques.- 11.5 Further reading.