Peptides in Neurobiology

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1 Peptides in Neurobiology: Historical Introduction.- 1. The Neurosecretory Neuron and the Concept of Neurosecretion.- 2. The Hypothalamic Origin of the Posterior Lobe Hormones.- 3. The Hypothalamic Control of the Adenohypophysis.- 4. Nonhormonal Neurosecretory Signals to Endocrine and Nonendocrine Effector Cells.- 5. Peptidergic Interneuronal Communication.- 6. Conclusion.- 7. References.- 2 Application of Fluorescent Techniques to the Study of Peptides.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Preparation of Materials and Equipment.- 3. Isolation of Peptides from Tissues.- 4. Separation and Detection of Peptides.- 4.1. Noncolumn Methods for Free Peptides.- 4.2. Column Methods for Free Peptides.- 4.3. Noncolumn Methods for Prelabeled Peptides.- 4.4. Column Methods for Prelabeled Peptides.- 5. Applications.- 5.1. Isolation of Pure Peptides.- 5.2. Quantitative Analysis.- 5.3. Physiological Studies.- 5.4. Chemical Characterization.- 6. Conclusion.- 7. References.- 3 Specific Problems in the Identification and Quantitation of Neuropeptides by Radioimmunoassay.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Radioimmunoassay for Detection of Well-Characterized Peptides in Nervous Tissues.- 2.1. Species-Specificity.- 2.2. Preparation of Tissue Extracts.- 2.3. Sources of Artifact.- 2.4. Physical-Chemical Characterization.- 3. Development of Radioimmunoassay Systems for Newly Described Peptides.- 3.1. Production of Antisera.- 3.2. Labeled Peptide.- 3.3. Preparation of Standards.- 3.4. Separation Techniques.- 4. Conclusions and Conjectures.- 5. References.- 4 Immunocytochemistry of Neuropeptides and Their Receptors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Unlabeled Antibody Enzyme Method-Sensitivity of Immunocytochemistry.- 3. Modifications of the Unlabeled Antibody Enzyme Method.- 4. Immunocytochemical Staining of Nervous Tissue.- 5. Neurotransmitter Pathways-Catecholamines and Serotonin.- 6. Hypothalamopituitary Pathways.- 6.1. Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and Angiotensin.- 6.2. Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone, Somatostatin, and Corticotropin-Releasing Factor.- 7. Neuropeptide Receptors.- 8. Nonpituitary Neurosecretory Peptide Pathways.- 9. References.- 5 Substance P and Neurotensin.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Guidelines for the Isolation of Biologically Active Peptides.- 2.1. Detection of Activity.- 2.2. Quantitation of Activity.- 2.3. Establishment of the Peptidic Nature of the Active Material.- 2.4. Development of Isolation Procedures.- 2.5. Sequencing.- 2.6. Synthesis.- 3. Guidelines for the Radioimmunoassay of Small Peptides.- 3.1. General Approach.- 3.2. Generation of Antisera.- 3.3 Selection of Antisera.- 3.4. Performance and Interpretation.- 4. Substance P.- 4.1. Detection of Activity.- 4.2. Quantitation of Activity.- 4.3. Identification as a Peptide.- 4.4. Isolation Procedures.- 4.5. Amino Acid Sequence.- 4.6. Synthesis.- 4.7. Radioimmunoassay.- 4.8. Immunocytochemical Studies.- 4.9. Substance P as a Neurotransmitter.- 5. Neurotensin.- 5.1. Detection of Activity.- 5.2. Quantitation of Activity.- 5.3. Identification as a Peptide.- 5.4. Isolation Procedures.- 5.5. Amino Acid Sequence.- 5.6. Synthesis.- 5.7. Biological Properties.- 5.8. Biologically Active Region.- 5.9. Radioimmunoassay.- 6. References.- 6 Biologically Active Peptides in the Mammalian Central Nervous System.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Historical Perspective.- 3. Indirect Methods for Locating Neurosecretory Cells.- 3.1. Lesions.- 3.2. Pituitary Grafts.- 3.3. Electrical Stimulation.- 3.4. Hypothalamic Deafferentation.- 3.5. Electrophysiological Approaches.- 4. Regional Distribution of Selected Peptides.- 4.1. Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone.- 4.2. Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone.- 4.3. Growth Hormone Release-Inhibiting Hormone (Somatostatin).- 4.4. Vasopressin, Oxytocin, and the Neurophysins.- 4.5. Substance P and Neurotensin.- 4.6. ?-Lipotropin, ACTH, ?-MSH, and Enkephalin (Endorphin).- 4.7. Carnosine.- 4.8. Gastrin.- 5. Conclusion.- 6. References.- 7 Peptides Containing Probable Transmitter Candidates in the Central Nervous System.- 1. General Properties of CNS Peptides.- 2. Peptide and Peptidoamine Synthesis with N-Terminal Acetyl-Asp.- 3. Factors That Affect the Levels and Release of Peptides in the CNS.- 3.1. Regulation of Secretion of Releasing Factors.- 3.2. Role of Peptidases in the CNS.- 4. A Working Hypothesis of Peptides as the Final Common Pathway of Multisignal Integration.- 5. Specific Examples of the Working Hypothesis.- 6. Conclusion.- 7. References.- 8 Biosynthesis of Neuronal Peptides.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Precursor-Protein (Prohormone) Concept.- 3. Strategy for the Study of Peptide Biosynthesis in Neurons.- 3.1. Intact Systems.- 3.2. Identification of a Precursor.- 4. Peptidergic Neurons in Aplysia as Model Systems.- 4.1. Peptidergic and Nonpeptidergic Identified Neurons.- 4.2. Pulse-and-Chase Experiments in Neuron R15.- 4.3. Biosynthetic and Subcellular Fractionation Studies on the Bag Cells.- 4.4. A Model of Neuronal Peptide Biosynthesis and Transport.- 5. Biosynthesis of Neurohypophyseal Peptides and Neurophysin.- 5.1. Historical Background.- 5.2. The Experimental System.- 5.3. Time-Course of Synthesis and Transport of Protein.- 5.4. Analysis of Proteins Transported to the Neurohypophysis.- 5.5. Biosynthetic Evidence for a Precursor.- 5.6. Axonal Transport and Processing of the Precursor.- 5.7. Summary and Conclusions.- 6. Regulation of Neuronal Peptide Biosynthesis.- 7. Biological Significance of the Precursor Mode of Peptide Biosynthesis.- 8. Conclusion.- 9. References.- 9 Conversion and Inactivation of Neuropeptides.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Comment on Classification of Proteolytic Enzymes.- 1.2. Methodological Considerations.- 2. Conversion of Prohormones.- 2.1. Corticotropin and Lipotropin.- 2.2. Pituitary-Hypothalamic Hormones.- 2.3. The Angiotensin-Renin System.- 2.4. The Kinin System.- 2.5. Non-CNS Peptides.- 3. Inactivation of Active Peptides.- 3.1. Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone.- 3.2. Somatostatin.- 3.3. Thyrotropin-Releasing Factor.- 3.4. Substance P and Neurotensin.- 3.5. Oxytocin and Vasopressin.- 3.6. Melanocyte-Inhibiting Factor.- 3.7. Insulin.- 3.8. Angiotensin.- 3.9. Kinins.- 3.10. Lipotropic-Related Peptides.- 4. References.- 10 Peptides in Invertebrate Nervous Systems.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Coelenterata.- 2.1. Head-Activator Peptide.- 2.2. Neck-Inducing Factor.- 3. Arthropoda (Crustacea).- 3.1. Peptides That Act on Tegumentary Chromatophores.- 3.2. Peptides That Act on Retinic Pigments.- 3.3. Cardioactive Peptides.- 3.4. Hyperglycemic Factors.- 3.5. Molt-Inhibiting Factor.- 3.6. Circadian Modulator.- 4. Arthropoda (Insecta).- 4.1. Peptides That Act on the Heartbeat Rate.- 4.2. Peptides That Act on the Gut.- 4.3. Peptides That Act on Diuresis and on Malpighian Tubule Movements.- 4.4. Peptides (Proteins) That Act on the Prothoracic Gland (Prothoracicotropic Hormones).- 4.5. Silkworm Embryonic Diapause Hormone.- 4.6. Peptides That Act on Spontaneous Electrical Activity of Neurons.- 4.7. Bursicon and Other Tanning Factors.- 4.8. Hyperglycemic Peptides.- 4.9. Adipokinetic Hormone.- 4.10. Peptide and Protein Pheromones from Male Accessory Glands.- 4.11. Neurosecretory Factors with As Yet Undemonstrated Peptidic Nature.- 4.12. Peptides of Unknown Function Found in the Nervous System.- 5. Mollusca.- 5.1. Cardioactive Peptides.- 5.2. Peptides That Regulate Neuronal Activity.- 5.3. Peptides That Regulate Salt and Water.- 5.4. Peptides Involved in Reproduction.- 6. Echinodermata: Radial Nerve Factor.- 7. Conclusion.- 8. References.- 11 Physiological Roles of Peptides in the Nervous System.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Neurotransmitters.- 1.2. Neurohormones.- 2. Substance P.- 2.1. Distribution.- 2.2. Actions in the Central Nervous System.- 2.3. Actions in the Peripheral Nervous System.- 2.4. Conclusions.- 3. Angiotensin II.- 3.1. Distribution.- 3.2. Actions in the Central Nerv…