A Research Primer for the Social and Behavioral Sciences provides an introductory but comprehensive overview of the research process that primarily concerns human subjects.

This book discusses the methods of acquiring knowledge, importance of a well-chosen problem, review of the literature, and relationship between theory-building and hypothesis-testing. The common sources of invalidity in practice, non-experimental research types, Stevens' classification of scales, and estimation based on probabilistic sampling are also elaborated. This text likewise covers the role of computer in research, techniques for analysis of data, univariate and bivariate statistics, and assumptions underlying analysis of variance. Other topics include the canonical correlation analysis, non-parametric analysis of variance, deterministic problem analysis techniques, and common errors in presentation of findings.

This publication is intended for novice investigators in the broad category of social and behavioral sciences.

Contenu

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Appendix: Decision Trees

Notes

Preliminaries
Introduction
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge
The Scientific Method
Identifying a Problem as Researchable
The Role of Theory
Causality
Controlled Observations
Statistical Analysis
Overview of the Scientific Method
Classification of Research
Formulative and Verificational Research
Basic, Applied, and Action Research
Notes
Additional Reading
Choosing the Research Problem and Stating the Problem-Question
The Importance of a Well-Chosen Problem
Sources of Problems
The Role of Curiosity
A Theoretical Basis for the Study
Originality
Amenability to Replication
Practical Aspects of Problem Formulation
Time
Costs
Availability of Other Resources
Availability of Information
Usefulness of the Findings
Politics of Problem Selection
Political Problems Peculiar to Doctoral Students: The Committee
Capabilities and Limitations of the Researcher
Stating the Problem-Question: Avoiding Common Errors in Formulation
A Research Plan
Design: Preliminaries
Trouble: The Best-Laid Plans
Appendix: Difficulties Nobody Mentions Because They Figure You Shouldn't Have To Be Told (Maybe You Don't)
Notes
Additional Reading
The Background of the Problem: Review of the Literature
Introduction
Locating Reference Materials: Bibliographic
Reviewing and Abstracting
Checklist for Evaluating the Report of a Study
Locating Reference Materials: Other Researchers
Format: Notes and Bibliography
Recording and Storing Bibliographic Material
When to Stop
Common Errors
Outcome of the Background Search
Appendix: Research Indexes
Notes
Additional Reading
Definitions and Major Research Hypotheses
Introduction: The Relationship Between Theory-Building and Hypothesis-Testing
Role of Definitions in Hypothesis Formulation
Selection of Variables and Identification of Their Role in the Hypothesis
The Hypothesis: What Is It?
Stating the Expected Relationships
Operationalizing Definitions and Hypotheses
The Logic of Hypothesis Testing
The Null Hypothesis
Level of Significance, Region of Rejection, and Type I or a-Error
Type II or ß-Error
One-Tailed Versus Two-Tailed Tests (Directional Versus Nondirectional Effects)
When Significance Tests Are Not Appropriate or Useful
A Final Word
Notes
Additional Reading
Evaluating Method and Design
Introduction
Classification of Research
Control
Internal and External Validity
Control of Variance
Common Sources of Invalidity in Practice
Notes
Additional Reading
Research Types
Introduction
Nonexperimental Research Types: Historical
Nonexperimental Research Types: Descriptive
1. Longitudinal Studies
2. Case and Generalized Case Studies
3. Correlational Studies
4. System Studies
Experimental Research Types
Overlapping Research Types
Pilot Studies
Summary
Notes
Additional Reading
Procedure: Measurement, Instrumentation, and Data Collection
Introduction
Measurement
Stevens' Classification of Scales
Other Ways to Classify Scales
Scales and Statistics
Instruments
Direct Observation
Equipment
Questions and Schedules
Some Vocabulary
Questions
Scaling: Constructing Scales
Indexes
Normative and Ipsative Scoring
Criteria for Evaluating Instruments
Validity
Reliability
Standardization
Sensitivity and Differentiability
The Role of Measurement and Instrumentation
Problems of Developing Your Own Instrument
Notes
Additional Reading
The Study Population: Sampling
Introduction
Sampling: Advantages and Disadvantages
Nonprobability Sample Types
Estimation Based on Probabilistic Sampling
Determining a Sampling Procedure: Initial Steps
Sampling Types
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Matched Samples
Two-Phased Sampling
Sequential Sampling
Interpenetrating Replicate Subsampling
Other Sampling Types
Determining Sample Size
Sampling Errors to Avoid
Sampling and Studying Human Populations
Sampling and External Validity: A Concluding Note
Notes
Additional Reading
Role of Computer in Research
Computer Processing of Data
Some Basic Computer Terminology
Access to Computing Facilities
Who Processes Your Data?
Computer Costs
Timely Processing
Coding and Documentation
Computerizing Input Information
Verification of Input Information
Security of Machine-Readable Information
Automated Data Acquisition and Process Control
Data Base Management (Management Information) Systems and Computer Simulation (Automated Data Generation)
Your Own Software
Computer Packages for the Social Sciences
Computer Graphics
Text Editors
Keeping Data Records (Archiving)
Notes
Additional Reading
Techniques for Analysis of Data
Introduction
A Note on Word Usage
Questions That Data Analysis Can and Cannot Answer
Experts
Choosing and Using a Statistical Resource Person or Consultant
Choosing and Using a Computer Resource Person
Classification of Data Analysis or Statistical Techniques
Evaluating Competing Procedures
Computer Use
Decision Trees for Choosing Statistical Procedures
Notes
Additional Reading
Probabilistic Methods: Univariate and Bivariate Statistics
Introduction
Graphs and Charts
Bar Charts
Line Plots or Line Charts
Scattergrams
Pie Charts
Exploratory Graphing Techniques
Statistical Maps
Miscellaneous Schematic Graphs
Tables
Percentages
Cross Sorts and Cross Breaks
Univariate Measures and Techniques
The Measurement of Difference
Measurement of Relationships and Strength of Association Nonparametric Relationships
Afterword
Notes
Additional Reading
Probabilistic Methods: Multivariate Statistics I: Basic Strategies
Introduction
Charts and Tables for Three or More Variables
Multiple Causality
Partial and Semipartial (Part) Correlation
Multiple Regression Analysis
Least Squares Assumptions
Nonlinear Regression: Transforming (Re-Expressing) Variables
Path Analysis