Disarmament and Decommissioning in the Nuclear Domain

Following the acquisition of the atomic bomb by five states, the United Nations began drafting several treaties to limit nuclear proliferation. These efforts failed, as four more states also acquired nuclear weapons. In a similar vein, an attempt to limit atomic weapons - primarily within the two superpowers - was initiated.

While the number of weapons has decreased, the new bombs now being manufactured are more powerful and more precise, negating any reduction in numbers. In the field of civil nuclear use, all nuclear facilities (reactors, factories, etc.) have a limited lifespan. Once a plant is permanently shut down, these facilities must be decommissioned and dismantled.

These operations are difficult, time-consuming and costly. In addition, decommissioning generates large volumes of radioactive waste of various categories, including long-lived and high-activity waste. Risks to the environment and to health are not negligible during decommissioning. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have produced numerous publications with recommendations. Each state has its own decommissioning strategy (immediate or delayed) and final plan for the site - whether it be returning it to greenfield status or obtaining a nuclear site license with centuries-long monitoring.

Auteur
Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Radioecology, Emeritus Research Director at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books or book chapters and 150 presentations at international conferences.

Contenu

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Chapter 1 Nuclear Non-Proliferation 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The first countries to acquire the atomic bomb 2

1.3 The NPT 4

1.3.1 The functioning of the Treaty 5

1.3.2 Revision of the NPT 5

1.3.3 Successes of the NPT 6

1.3.4 Failures of the NPT 7

1.3.5 Future nuclear-weapon states 10

1.4 Other nuclear non-proliferation treaties 10

1.4.1 The CTBT Treaty 10

1.4.2 The TPNW 11

1.4.3 The Fissile Material Cut-Off Treaty (FMCT) 12

1.4.4 Regional disarmament treaties 14

1.5 Disarmament controls 15

1.5.1 Principle and practice of disarmament controls 15

1.5.2 NPT controls 17

1.6 Actions of NGOs 25

1.6.1 The main actions of NGOs for disarmament 26

1.6.2 NGOs and the Nobel Peace Prize 28

1.7 The military denuclearization of a state 29

1.7.1 South Africa: the example of the complete denuclearization of a country 29

1.7.2 Other states that have renounced nuclear weapons 31

1.8 Conclusions 32

Chapter 2 Disarmament of Atomic Weapons 35

2.1 Introduction 35

2.2 Limitations on the number of nuclear weapons 35

2.2.1 Bilateral disarmament agreements and treaties between the Americans and Soviets 36

2.2.2 Delivery of nuclear supplies 39

2.2.3 Controlling the delivery systems of atomic weapons 39

2.2.4 The Hague Code of Conduct (HCoC) 40

2.2.5 The disarmament of France 42

2.3 Nuclear deterrent forces 43

2.3.1 Land forces of nuclear deterrence 45

2.3.2 Air forces of nuclear deterrence 46

2.3.3 Oceanic nuclear deterrent forces 48

2.3.4 Nuclear weapon manufacturing sites 50

2.3.5 Nuclear weapon deployment and storage sites 53

2.3.6 The state of stocks of nuclear weapons and fissile materials 56

2.4 Disarmament controls 61

2.4.1 Controls of the CTBT 61

2.4.2 Bilateral controls 62

2.5 Conclusions 62

Chapter 3 International Recommendations and National Policies in Decommissioning 65

3.1 Introduction 65

3.1.1 Definitions of terms for end-of-life operations of a BNI 65

3.1.2 Stages in the life of a BNI 66

3.2 General principles of decommissioning and dismantling 67

3.2.1 The necessity and goals of decommissioning 67

3.2.2 IAEA recommendations 68

3.2.3 NEA work and publications 70

3.2.4 Decommissioning and dismantling strategies 70

3.2.5 Decommissioning planning 74

3.2.6 Duration of decommissioning 77

3.3 Lessons from the past 78

3.3.1 Experience in decommissioning 79

3.3.2 Structuring and organization of companies 80

3.3.3 Ongoing decommissioning challenges 80

3.3.4 Management of the unexpected in dismantling 80

3.3.5 The transmission of information 80

3.4 The decommissioning and dismantling policies of the various states 81

3.4.1 US policy 82

3.4.2 Russia's policy 83

3.4.3 Germany's policy 85

3.4.4 UK policy 86

3.4.5 France's policy 88

3.4.6 China 93

3.4.7 Sweden 93

3.4.8 Japan 95

3.4.9 Other states 95

3.5 Conclusions 99

Chapter 4 Procedures and Technologies Involved in Decommissioning 101

4.1 Introduction 101

4.2 The cost of dismantling 101

4.2.1 International recommendations 102

4.2.2 The American example 105

4.2.3 The British example 106

4.2.4 The French example 108

4.2.5 The Russian example 109

4.3 The production of radioactive waste 109

4.3.1 The channels planned for the management of radioactive waste 110

4.3.2 Material release thresholds 112 4.4 The environmental and heal...