Introduction to Chemistry

Introduction to Chemistry is a 26-chapter introductory textbook in general chemistry.
This book deals first with the atoms and the arithmetic and energetics of their combination into molecules. The subsequent chapters consider the nature of the interactions among atoms or the so-called chemical bonding. This topic is followed by discussions on the nature of intermolecular forces and the states of matter. This text further explores the statistics and dynamics of chemistry, including the study of equilibrium and kinetics. Other chapters cover the aspects of ionic equilibrium, acids and bases, and galvanic cells. The concluding chapters focus on a descriptive study of chemistry, such as the representative and transition elements, organic and nuclear chemistry, metals, polymers, and biochemistry.
Teachers and undergraduate chemistry students will find this book of great value.

Contenu

Preface

Introduction

1.1 General and Historical

1.2 Definitions of Some Chemical Terms

1.3 The Purity of Compounds

1.4 Chemical Symbols, Formulas, and Equations

2 Electronic Structures of Atoms

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Quantization of Electricity

2.3 The Positive Ions (Positive Rays)

2.4 The Rutherford-Bohr Nuclear Theory of the Atom

2.5 The Nature of Light

2.6 Spectra of Elements

2.7 Quantization of the Energy of an Electron Associated with a Nucleus

2.8 Modification of the Bohr Theory

2.9 The Electron-How Shall We Think About It?

2.10 The Distribution of Electrons in Quantum Levels

2.11 The Energies of the Quantum Levels

2.12 Electron Spin

2.13 Aufbau

2.14 What Do The Quantum Numbers Represent?

2.15 Representations of the Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

2.16 Paramagnetism

3 Chemical Periodicity

3.1 Formulas and Valence

3.2 Nomenclature

3.3 Chemical Periodicity before Mendeleev

3.4 Mendeleev; Meyer

3.5 The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table. Types of Elements

3.6 The Periodicity of Chemical Properties

3.7 Atomic Structure and Periodic Properties of Atoms

4 Atomic and Molecular Weights. The Mole

4.1 The Law of Conservation of Matter

4.2 The Law of Definite Proportions

4.3 The Atomic Theory

4.4 The Law of Combining Volumes; The Avogadro Hypothesis

4.5 Approximate Molecular Weights of Gases. The Mole

4.6 Atomic Weights from Molecular Weights; The Cannizzaro Method

4.7 Molecular Formulas

4.8 Empirical Formulas; Ionic Solids

4.9 Mass Spectroscopy; Isotopes; Accurate Atomic Weights

5 Stoichiometry-The Arithmetic of Chemistry

5.1 Chemical Equations

5.2 Quantitative information from Chemical Equations

5.3 Conversion and Selectivity (Yield)

6 The First Law of Thermodynamics; Thermochemistry

6.1 Conservation of Energy

6.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics

6.3 Thermochemistry

6.4 Hess's Law

6.5 Bond Dissociation Energy

6.6 The Interconvertibility of Matter and Energy

7 Types of Chemical Bonds

7.1 Introduction

7.2 What Type of Attractive Forces Hold Atoms Together in Chemical Bonds?

7.3 Lewis Symbols

7.4 The Ionic Bond

7.5 The Covalent Bond

7.6 The Multiple Bonds

7.7 Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

7.8 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity

7.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule

7.10 Formal Charge and Oxidation Number

7.11 Periodicity of Chemical Bonding

8 The Covalent Bond

8.1 The Molecular Orbital

8.2 Sigma (s) Bonds and P1 (p) Bonds

8.3 Binary Covalent Molecules and Ions

8.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals

8.5 Multiply Bonded Molecules

8.6 Hybrid Orbital Number

8.7 Relative Energy Levels of the s-p Type of Hybrid Orbital

8.8 Resonance and Delocalized p Electrons

9 The Shapes and Symmetry of Molecules

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Hybridization of Orbitals of Atoms with more than an Octet of Valence Electrons

9.3 Principal Factors Determining Molecular Shape

9.4 Principal Effect of a Lone Pair of Electrons

9.5 Molecules whose Central Atoms use Unhybridized p Orbitals

9.6 Shapes of Multiple-Bonded Molecules

9.7 Molecular Symmetry

9.8 Molecular Dissymmetry

10 Intermolecular Forces

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Dipole-Dipole Interaction

10.3 Ion-Dipole Attractions

10.4 Hydrogen Bonding

10.5 London Forces

10.6 London Forces and Molecular Shape

11 Gases

11.1 The States of Aggregation of Molecules in Matter

11.2 The Properties of Gases

11.3 Boyle's Law

11.4 The Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac; Absolute Temperature

11.5 Avogadro's Law

11.6 The Gas Law; The Mole; Gas Densities

11.7 Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

11.8 The Pressure of a Gas Confined by a Liquid

11.9 Gas Volume Corrections in Stoichiometry

11.10 Ideal Gases. The Kinetic Molecular Hypothesis

11.11 Deviations from Ideal Behavior

12 Aggregated States of Matter

12.1 Crystalline Solids; Methods of investigation

12.2 The Space Lattice; The Unit Cell

12.3 The Tetrahedron; The Octahedron

12.4 Liquids; Glasses

12.5 Changes of State

12.6 Spontaneous Change; Entropy

12.7 Liquid-Gas Interconversion; Vapor Pressure

12.8 Critical Constants

12.9 Boiling, Melting, and Freezing Points

12.10 Colloids; Adsorbents

13 Solutions

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Liquid Solutions

13.3 Saturation: Gases in Liquids

13.4 Saturation: Solids in Liquids or Liquids in Liquids

13.5 Dependence of Solubility on Temperature

13.6 Supersaturation

13.7 Solubility and Molecular Structure

13.8 Detergency

13.9 Solid Solutions

13.10 Measures of Composition for Solutions

13.11 Vapor Pressures of Solutions; Raoult's Law

13.12 Vapor Pressure Depression

13.13 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression

13.14 Determination of Molecular Weights

14 Chemical Equilibrium

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Equilibrium in Gases; The Equilibrium Constant

14.3 Change of K with Form of Equation

14.4 Combination of Equilibria

14.5 Principle of Le Chatelier

14.6 Heterogeneous Equilibrium

14.7 Equilibrium in Solutions

14.8 Equilibrium Calculations

15 Ionic Solutions

15.1 Electrical Conductance

15.2 Colligative Properties of Solutions of Electrolytes

15.3 Ionic Conduction

15.4 Solvation of Ions

15.5 Covalent Electrolytes

15.6 Net Ionic Equations

15.7 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations by the Ion-Electron Method

15.8 Electrode Processes

15.9 Electrolysis of Fused Salts

15.10 Faraday's Laws

15.11 Strong Electrolytes

15.12 Conductances of individual Ions

15.13 Weak Electrolytes

15.14 Degree of Dissociation

16 Galvanic Cells and the Driving Force of Chemical Reactions

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Electricity from a Chemical Reaction

16.3 A Galvanic Cell with One Solution

16.4 Electrical Work; Electromotive Force

16.5 Measurement of Electromotive Force

16.6 Free Energy and Entropy

16.7 Salt Bridges; Conventional Notation for Cells

16.8 The Effect of Concentration on EMF; Nernst Equation

16.9 Half-Cell Potentials; The Hydrogen Half-Cell

16.10 EMF, K, and g

16.11 Predicting the Direction of a Reaction

16.12 Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

16.13 Some Practical Cells

16.14 Corrosion

17 Acids and Bases

17.1 Early Definitions

17.2 Brönsted-Lowry Concept of Acid-Base Reactions

17.3 Amproterism; Autoprotolysis (Self-Ionization)

17.4 Types of Protolytic Reaction

17.5 Lewis Acid-Base Concept

17.6 Some …