Airborne Measurements for Environmental Research

This first comprehensive review of airborne measurement principles covers all atmospheric components and surface parameters. It describes the common techniques to characterize aerosol particles and cloud/precipitation elements, while also explaining radiation quantities and pertinent hyperspectral and active remote sensing measurement techniques along the way. As a result, the major principles of operation are introduced and exemplified using specific instruments, treating both classic and emerging measurement techniques.
The two editors head an international community of eminent scientists, all of them accepted and experienced specialists in their field, who help readers to understand specific problems related to airborne research, such as immanent uncertainties and limitations. They also provide guidance on the suitability of instruments to measure certain parameters and to select the correct type of device.
While primarily intended for climate, geophysical and atmospheric researchers, its relevance to solar system objects makes this work equally appealing to astronomers studying atmospheres of solar system bodies with telescopes and space probes.

Auteur
Manfred Wendisch is a professor and director of the Institute of Meteorology at the University of Leipzig, Germany, and holds a permanent guest professor appointment at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing. Professor Wendisch is member of the Saxonian Academy of Sciences.

Jean-Louis Brenguier is Director of the Experimental and Instrumental meteorology Group of the French Meteorological Service, and Coordinator of the European facilities for Airborne Research (EUFAR). His research activities comprise aerosol detection.

Both authors are highly regarded with the community.

Texte du rabat
This handbook provides the first comprehensive review of measurement principles, instruments and processing techniques for airborne observation of the Earth?s atmosphere and surface. For each field, the major principles of measurement are presented and illustrated with commonly-used airborne instruments, to assess the present capabilities in terms of accuracy, to raise awareness of specific issues with the interpretation of measurements from airborne operations, and to review emerging measurement techniques.
The authors are internationally-recognized experts in their field, who actively contribute to the design and development of modern airborne instrumentation and processing techniques. While primarily intended for climate, geophysical and atmospheric researchers, its relevance to the solar system makes this work useful to astronomers studying planetary atmospheres with telescopes and space probes.

Contenu

Preface XVII

A Tribute to Dr. Robert Knollenberg XXI

List of Contributors XXIII

1 Introduction to Airborne Measurements of the Earth Atmosphere and Surface 1
Ulrich Schumann, David W. Fahey, Manfred Wendisch, and Jean-Louis Brenguier

2 Measurement of Aircraft State and Thermodynamic and Dynamic Variables 7
Jens Bange, Marco Esposito, Donald H. Lenschow, Philip R. A. Brown, Volker Dreiling, Andreas Giez, Larry Mahrt, Szymon P. Malinowski, Alfred R. Rodi, Raymond A. Shaw, Holger Siebert, Herman Smit, Martin Zöger

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Historical 8

2.3 Aircraft State Variables 10

2.3.1 Barometric Measurement of Aircraft Height 10

2.3.2 Inertial Attitude, Velocity, and Position 12

2.3.3 Satellite Navigation by Global Navigation Satellite Systems 15

2.3.4 Integrated IMU/GNSS Systems for Position and Attitude Determination 18

2.3.5 Summary, Gaps, Emerging Technologies 18

2.4 Static Air Pressure 18

2.4.1 Position Error 20

2.4.2 Summary 24

2.5 Static Air Temperature 24

2.5.1 Aeronautic Definitions of Temperatures 25

2.5.2 Challenges of Airborne Temperature Measurements 25

2.5.3 Immersion Probe 27

2.5.4 Reverse-Flow Sensor 29

2.5.5 Radiative Probe 30

2.5.6 Ultrasonic Probe 31

2.5.7 Error Sources 32

2.5.8 Calibration of Temperature Sensors 34

2.5.9 Summary, Gaps, Emerging Technologies 34

2.6 Water Vapor Measurements 35

2.6.1 Importance of Atmospheric Water Vapor 35

2.6.2 Humidity Variables 36

2.6.3 Dew or Frost Point Hygrometer 37

2.6.4 Lyman-a Absorption Hygrometer 39

2.6.5 Lyman-a Fluorescence Hygrometer 40

2.6.6 Infrared Absorption Hygrometer 41

2.6.7 Tunable Laser Absorption Spectroscopy Hygrometer 43

2.6.8 Thin Film Capacitance Hygrometer 44

2.6.9 Total Water Vapor and Isotopic Abundances of 18O and 2H 45

2.6.10 Factors Influencing In-Flight Performance 46

2.6.11 Humidity Measurements with Dropsondes 47

2.6.12 Calibration and In-Flight Validation 48

2.6.13 Summary and Emerging Technologies 49

2.7 Three-Dimensional Wind Vector 50

2.7.1 Airborne Wind Measurement Using Gust Probes 52

2.7.2 Errors and Flow Distortion 56

2.7.3 In-Flight Calibration 57

2.8 Small-Scale Turbulence 58

2.8.1 Hot-Wire/Hot-Film Probes for High-Resolution Flow Measurements 58

2.8.2 Laser Doppler Anemometers 60

2.8.3 Ultrasonic Anemometers/Thermometers 62

2.8.4 Measurements of Atmospheric Temperature Fluctuations with Resistance Wires 64

2.8.5 Calibration of Fast-Response Sensors 66

2.8.6 Summary, Gaps, and Emerging Technologies 67

2.9 Flux Measurements 68

2.9.1 Basics 68

2.9.2 Measurement Errors 69

2.9.3 Flux Sampling Errors 71

2.9.3.1 Systematic Flux Error 71

2.9.3.2 Random Flux Error 72

2.9.4 Area-Averaged Turbulent Flux 73

2.9.5 Preparation for Airborne Flux Measurement 74

3 In Situ Trace Gas Measurements 77
Jim McQuaid, Hans Schlager, Maria Dolores Andrés-Hernández, Stephen Ball, Agnès Borbon, Steve S. Brown, Valery Catoire, Piero Di Carlo, Thomas G. Custer, Marc von Hobe, James Hopkins, Klaus Pfeilsticker, Thomas Röckmann, Anke Roiger, Fred Stroh, Jonathan Williams, and Helmut Ziereis

3.1 Introduction 77

3.2 Historical and Rationale 81

3.3 Aircraft Inlets for Trace Gases 83

3.4 Examples of Recent Airborne Missions 84

3.5 Optical In Situ Techniques 86

3.5.1 UV Photometry 86

3.5.2 Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy 88

3.5.3 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy 95

3.5.4 Gas Filter Correlation Spectroscopy 103

3.5.5 Tunable Laser Absorption Spectroscopy 104

3.5.6 Fluorescence Techniques 107

3.6 Chemical Ionization Mass Spectrometry 120

3.6.1 Negative-Ion CIMS 120

3.6.2 The Proton Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometer 123

3.6.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 129

3.7 Chemical Conversion Techniques 131

3.7.1 Peroxy Radical Chemical Amplification 131

3.7.2 Chemiluminescence Techniques 137

3.7.3 Liquid Conversion Techniques 143

3.8 Whole Air Sampler and Chromatographic Techniques 147

3.8.1 Rationale 147

3.8.2 Whole Air Sampling Systems 148

3.8.3 Water Vapor Sampling for Isotope Analysis 150

3.8.4 Measurement Examples 150

3.8.5 Off-Line Analysis of VOCs 152

4 In Situ Measurements of Aerosol Particles 157
Andreas Petzold, Paola Formenti, Darrel Baumgardner, Ulrich Bundke, Hugh Coe, Joachim Curtius, Paul J. DeMott, Richard C. Flagan, Markus Fiebig, James G. Hudson, Jim McQuaid, Andreas Minikin, Gregory C. Roberts, and Jian Wang

4.1 Introduction 157

4.1.1 Historical Overview 157

4.1.2 Typical Mode Structure of Aerosol Particle Size Distribution 159

4.1.3 Quantitative Description of Aerosol Particles 159

4.1.4 Chapter Structure 162

4.2 Aerosol Particle Number Concentration 164

4.2.1 Condensation Particle Counters 164

4.2.2 Calibration of Cut-Off and Low-Pressure Detection Efficiency 166

4.3 Aerosol Particle Size Distribution 168

4.3.1 Single-Particle Optical Spectrometers 168

4.3.2 Aerodynamic Separators 174

4.3.3 Electrical Mobility Measurements of Particle Size Distributions 176

4.3.4 Inversion Methods 181

4.4 Chemical Composition of Aerosol Particles 184…