Onshore and Offshore Wind Energy

Auteur

Vasilis Fthenakis, Founder and Director of the Center for Life Cycle Analysis, Adj. Professor of Earth and Environmental Engineering and of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University and Distinguished Scientist Emeritus, Brookhaven National Laboratory. Subhamoy Bhattacharya, Chair in Geomechanics at University of Surrey, UK, and co-founder, Director and Chief Scientific Officer of RENEW RISK, A University Spin-off. Paul A. Lynn, formerly Reader in Electrical & Electronic Engineering at Imperial College, London.

Texte du rabat

Highly accessible and authoritative account of how wind energy is safely harnessed to address the ever-pressing climate and energy challenges Onshore and Offshore Wind Energy provides an in-depth treatment of wind energy's scientific background, current technology, and international status, with an emphasis on large turbines and wind farms, both onshore and offshore. In the newly revised second edition, highly qualified authors include technological advances in the field including offshore wind turbine structures, foundation design, installation, grid integration, and reliability, offering guidance on operation and maintenance. The text is supported by copious illustrations and around 50 inspiring full-color photographs from around the world. To further aid in reader comprehension and information retention, questions with answers and problems are included in each chapter. An accompanying website includes figures, tables, and solutions of the problems. The book is an essential primer for new entrants to the wind industry and to students on undergraduate and graduate courses on renewable energy. It also offers a unique treatise of the sustainability of emerging transformative technologies, which makes it useful to both system analysts and energy policy strategists. In Onshore and Offshore Wind Energy, readers will find information on:

• Basics on wind energy capture and conversion by wind turbines
• Technology evolution and deployment experiences in the EU, China, Taiwan, and US wind farms, plus common access issues
• Production and installation techniques
• Operation, maintenance and risk mitigation
• Grid integration, synergies with other renewable energies, and green hydrogen production
• Life cycle sustainability, recycling, and the role of wind energy in addressing climate and energy challenges Onshore and Offshore Wind Energy is aimed at a wide readership including professionals, policy makers, and employees in the energy sector in need of a basic appreciation of the underlying principles of wind energy, along with second and third year undergraduate and postgraduate students.

Contenu

About the Authors xi

Foreword xiii

Preface xv

Acknowledgment to the Second Edition xvii

Acknowledgment to the First Edition xviii

About the Companion Website xix

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Wind energy and Planet Earth 1

1.2 Winds of the world 3

1.3 From windmills to wind turbines 7

1.4 Power, energy, and performance 15

1.5 Coming up-to-date 21

Appendix 1.A: Energy units and conversions 25

Co2 emissions per fuel type 25

Co2 emissions in transportation 26

Self-assessment questions 26

Problems 27

Answers to questions 27

References 28

2 Capturing the wind 29

2.1 Wind speed and power 29

2.2 Wild wind 34

2.2.1 Introduction 34

2.2.2 Wind statistics 36

2.2.3 Mapping and forecasting 45

2.3 Predicting turbine output 51

Self-assessment questions 55

Problems 56

Answers to questions 57

References 58

3 Wind turbines 59

3.1 Turbine types and sizes 59

3.2 Aerodynamics 64

3.2.1 Rotor efficiency and the Betz limit 64

3.2.2 Lift and drag 67

3.2.3 Rotor speed 74

3.2.4 Rotor blades 80

3.2.4.1 Choosing airfoils 80

3.2.4.2 Stall and pitch control 83

3.3 Mechanics 86

3.3.1 Gearboxes 86

3.3.2 Towers 89

3.3.3 Vibration and fatigue 90

3.4 Electrics 98

3.4.1 Alternating current (AC) electricity 98

3.4.2 Generators 106

3.4.2.1 Introductory 106

3.4.2.2 Synchronous generators and gearless wind turbines 111

3.4.2.3 Asynchronous generators 116

3.5 Turbine control 125

3.6 Onshore wind farms 130

3.6.1 Introductory 130

3.6.2 Siting and spacing 132

3.6.3 Monitoring and control 136

Self-assessment questions 138

Problems 138

Answers to questions 141

References 142

4 Fundamentals of offshore system 143

4.1 Introduction 143

4.2 Offshore wind power fundamentals 146

4.3 Tackling intermittency of wind power 149

4.3.1 The sun, wind, and wind-resource map 149

4.3.2 Wind and waves 152

4.3.3 Wind-resource maps 156

4.3.4 Minimum wind speed to produce power and power curve of a turbine 156

4.3.5 Storage of energy from offshore wind 156

4.3.5.1 Hydrogen production using offshore wind-the Japanese "Jidai" concept 159

4.3.5.2 ASIDE: potential of green hydrogen 159

4.3.5.3 BATWIND project 160

4.4 Offshore systems and choice of foundations 160

4.4.1 Turbines and foundations 160

4.5 Offshore wind farm case studies 167

4.5.1 Case study: Horns Rev 2 167

4.5.2 Case study: London Array 170

4.5.3 Case study: World's first floating wind farm 173

4.6 Bringing the power ashore 175

Appendix 4.A: Specifications of turbines 177

Appendix 4.B: Details of offshore wind farms on different types of foundations 178

Self-assessment questions 181

Problems 181

Answers to questions 182

References 183

5 Offshore wind farm engineering 185

5.1 Conceptual design of wind arms 186

5.1.1 ASIDE 1: spacing of turbines and changes in geology and water depth 186

5.2 Cases studies 188

5.2.1 Dogger bank offshore wind farm 188

5.2.2 Westermost rough wind farm 189

5.2.3 Karehamn offshore wind farm 189

5.2.4 West of Duddon sands 191

5.2.5 Development of offshore wind in the USA 191

5.2.6 Wind farm development in China 192

5.3 Detailed site investigation 196

5.3.1 ASIDE 2: observed scour in Robin Rigg Wind Farm which had to be decommissioned mid-way in the lifecycle 198

5.3.2 Variability in ground profiles 198

5.3.3 Stages of investigation for ground model 201

5.3.3.1 Geological study 201

5.3.3.2 Geophysical survey 202

5.3.3.3 Geotechnical investigation 203

5.4 Offshore construction 203

5.4.1 Introduction 203

5.4.2 Choosing foundation systems 204

5.5 Engineering models of wind turbine systems 207

5.5.1 Load transfer mechanism from the structure to the ground 207

5.5.2 Modes of vibration 208

5.5.3 Mechanical model of the whole system 210

5.5.3.1 Why are foundations important? 213

5.6 Loads on a wind turbine structure 213

5.6.1 Load cases for foundation design 215

5.7 Frequencies of loads acting on wind turbine structure 220

5.8 Design requirements 222

5.9 Summary of offshore wind turbine engineering 224

Appendix 5.A: Modes of vibrations 224

5.A.1 Wind turbine systems on deep foundation 224

5.A.1.1 Modes of vibration of GBS structure 225

Appendix 5.B: Foundation stiffness 225

5.B.1 Definition of terms (KL, K R, and KLR) through the example of a cantilever beam 226

Appendix 5.C: Construction of wind and wave spectrum 228

5.C.1 Construction of wind spectrum 228

5.10 Kaimal spectrum 229

5.11 Construction of wave spectrum 230

Self-assessment questions 231

Problems 232

Answers to questions 235

References 236

6 Operations and maintenance (O&M) 237

6.1 Introduction 237

6.2 Maintenance practices and tools 238

6.3 Wind turbine O&M data 238

6.3.1 Onshore WT O&M data 239

6.3.2 Offshore WT O&M data 243

6.3.3 Onshore and offshore O&M data analysis 243

6.3.4 The impact of O&M on the LCOE 247

6.3.4.1 Land-based WT 247

6.3.4.2 Offshore wind turbines 249

6.4 Statistical tools of reliability analysis 250

6.4.1 Failure modes, effect, and criticalit…