Fundamentals of Microelectronics

Auteur

Behzad Razavi received the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from Sharif University of Technology in 1985, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1988 and 1992, respectively. He was with AT&T Bell Laboratories and subsequently Hewlett-Packard Laboratories until 1996. He was also an Adjunct Professor at Princeton University from 1992 to 1994. Since September 1996, Dr. Razavi has been an Associate Professor, and subsequently Professor, of the Electrical Engineering Department at UCLA. He was the Chair of the Integrated Circuits and Systems field of study, and served as Chair of the Department's Annual Research Review for two consecutive years.
Prof. Razavi is a member of the Technical Program Committees of Symposium on VLSI Circuits and the International Solid-State Circuits Conference (ISSCC), in which he is the chair of the Analog Subcommittee. He has served as Guest Editor and Associate Editor of the IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, and International Journal of High Speed Electronics.
Professor Razavi's current research includes wireless transceivers, frequency synthesizers, phase-locking and clock recovery for high-speed data communications, and data converters.

Contenu

1 Introduction To Microelectronics 1

1.1 Electronics Versus Microelectronics 1

1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 2

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone 2

1.2.2 Digital Camera 5

1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital 7

1.3 Basic Concepts 8

1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 8

1.3.2 Analog Circuits 10

1.3.3 Digital Circuits 11

1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems 12

1.4 Chapter Summary 20

2 Basic Physics Of Semiconductors 21

2.1 Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties 22

2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids 22

2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities 25

2.1.3 Transport of Carriers 28

2.2 pn Junction 35

2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium 36

2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias 41

2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Bias 46

2.2.4 I/V Characteristics 49

2.3 Reverse Breakdown 54

2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 55

2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 55

2.4 Chapter Summary 56

Problems 57

SPICE Problems 60

3 Diode Models and Circuits 61

3.1 Ideal Diode 62

3.1.1 Initial Thoughts 62

3.1.2 Ideal Diode 63

3.1.3 Application Examples 67

3.2 pn Junction as a Diode 72

3.3 Additional Examples 74

3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation 80

3.5 Applications of Diodes 89

3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers 89

3.5.2 Voltage Regulation 100

3.5.3 Limiting Circuits 103

3.5.4 Voltage Doublers 106

3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches 112

3.6 Chapter Summary 114

Problems 115

SPICE Problems 122

4 Physics of Bipolar Transistors 124

4.1 General Considerations 125

4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor 126

4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode 127

4.3.1 Collector Current 129

4.3.2 Base and Emitter Currents 133

4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics 135

4.4.1 Large-Signal Model 135

4.4.2 I/V Characteristics 137

4.4.3 Concept of Transconductance 139

4.4.4 Small-Signal Model 141

4.4.5 Early Effect 145

4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode 152

4.6 The PNP Transistor 155

4.6.1 Structure and Operation 155

4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 156

4.6.3 Small-Signal Model 159

4.7 Chapter Summary 162

Problems 163

SPICE Problems 170

5 Bipolar Amplifiers 172

5.1 General Considerations 173

5.1.1 Input and Output Impedances 173

5.1.2 Biasing 178

5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis 178

5.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design 180

5.2.1 Simple Biasing 181

5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing 183

5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter Degeneration 186

5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage 190

5.2.5 Biasing of PNP Transistors 192

5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Topologies 196

5.3.1 Common-Emitter Topology 197

5.3.2 Common-Base Topology 224

5.3.3 Emitter Follower 238

5.4 Summary and Additional Examples 246

5.5 Chapter Summary 253

Problems 253

SPICE Problems 267

6 Physics of Mos Transistors 269

6.1 Structure of MOSFET 270

6.2 Operation of MOSFET 272

6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 272

6.2.2 Derivation of I-V Characteristics 279

6.2.3 Channel-Length Modulation 288

6.2.4 MOS Transconductance 290

6.2.5 Velocity Saturation 292

6.2.6 Other Second-Order Effects 292

6.3 MOS Device Models 293

6.3.1 Large-Signal Model 293

6.3.2 Small-Signal Model 295

6.4 PMOS Transistor 296

6.5 CMOS Technology 299

6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS Devices 300

6.7 Chapter Summary 300

Problems 301

SPICE Problems 308

7 Cmos Amplifiers 309

7.1 General Considerations 310

7.1.1 MOS Amplifier Topologies 310

7.1.2 Biasing 310

7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources 313

7.2 Common-Source Stage 315

7.2.1 CS Core 315

7.2.2 CS Stage with Current-Source Load 318

7.2.3 CS Stage with Diode- Connected Load 319

7.2.4 CS Stage with Degeneration 320

7.2.5 CS Core with Biasing 323

7.3 Common-Gate Stage 325

7.3.1 CG Stage with Biasing 329

7.4 Source Follower 331

7.4.1 Source Follower Core 331

7.4.2 Source Follower with Biasing 333

7.5 Summary and Additional Examples 336

7.6 Chapter Summary 340

Problems 341

SPICE Problems 353

8 Operational Amplifier As a Black Box 355

8.1 General Considerations 356

8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits 358

8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 358

8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier 360

8.2.3 Integrator and Differentiator 363

8.2.4 Voltage Adder 371

8.3 Nonlinear Functions 373

8.3.1 Precision Rectifier 373

8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier 374

8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier 375

8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities 376

8.4.1 DC Offsets 376

8.4.2 Input Bias Current 379

8.4.3 Speed Limitations 382

8.4.4 Finite Input and Output Impedances 387

8.5 Design Examples 388

8.6 Chapter Summary 390

Problems 391

SPICE Problems 397

9 Cascode Stages and Current Mirrors 398

9.1 Cascode Stage 399

9.1.1 Cascode as a Current Source 399

9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier 405

9.2 Current Mirrors 414

9.2.1 Initial Thoughts 414

9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror 416

9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror 425

9.3 Chapter Summary 429

Problems 430

SPICE Problems 441

10 Differential Amplifiers 443

10.1 General Considerations 444

10.1.1 Initial Thoughts 444

10.1.2 Differential Signals 446

10.1.3 Differential Pair 449

10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair 452

10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 452

10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis 458

10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis 463

10.3 MOS Differential Pair 469

10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 469

10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis 473

10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis 478

10.4 Cascode Differential Amplifiers 481

10.5 Common-Mode Rejection 485

10.6 Differential Pair with Active Load 489

10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 490

10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis 492

10.7 Chapter Summary 496

Problems 497

SPICE Problems 509

11 Frequency Response 511

11.1 Fundamental Concepts 512

11.1.1 General Considerations 512

11.1.2 Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response 515

11.1.3 Bode's Rules 518

11.1.4 Association of Poles with Nodes 519

11.1.5 Miller's Theorem 521

11.1.6 General Frequency Response 525

11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors 529

11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor 529

11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of Mosfet 531

11.2.3 Transit Frequency 532

11.3 Analysis Procedure 534

11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages 535

11.4.1 Low-Frequency Response 535

11.4.2 High-Frequency Response 536

11.4.3 Use of Miller's Theorem 537

11.4.4 Direct Analysis 539

11.4.5 Input Impedance 543

11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages 544

11.5.1 Low-Freque…