Understanding Emotions, EMEA Edition

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Emotions are an inescapable part of the human experience. They motivate actions and reactions, guide our interpersonal and business relationships, inspire political and societal trends, and influence our sense of self and well-being. Emphasizing the broad practical reach of this field of study, Understanding Emotions draws from neuroscience, psychiatry, biology, genetics, the humanities, economics, and more to provide a strong foundation in core concepts. An easy-to-follow narrative arc encompasses the entire life span, while representative studies provide immediate insight into the real-world implications of important findings. This new Fourth Edition continues to provide clear and concise guidance toward the factors that drive emotion, with new, revised, and expanded discussions that reflect the current state of the field. Detailed coverage of social and anti-social motivations, moral judgment, empathy, psychological disorders, the physiological components of emotion, and many more equip students with the conceptual tools to probe deeper into the material and apply methods and techniques to their own personal lives.

Contenu

Figures xvii

Tables xxv

Preface xxvii

Acknowledgments xxxi

Part I Perspectives on Emotions 1

1 Approaches to Understanding Emotions 3

Introduction 4

What is an Emotion? First Ideas 5

Nineteenth-Century Founders 6

Charles Darwin: The Evolutionary Approach 6

William James: The Bodily Approach 10

Sigmund Freud: The Psychoanalytic Approach 10

Philosophical and Literary Approaches 12

Aristotle and the Ethics of Emotions 12

René Descartes: Philosophically Speaking 15

George Eliot: The World of the Arts 17

Brain Science, Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology 18

John Harlow, Tania Singer: Toward a Brain Science of Emotion 19

Magda Arnold, Sylvan Tomkins: New Psychological Theories 22

Erving Goffman, Arlie Russell Hochschild, and Lila Abu-Lughod: Emotions as Moral Dramas Involving Selves and Others 24

Empirical Inspirations for a New Science of Emotion 26

What is an Emotion? A Framework 28

The Emotional Realm: Emotions-Moods-Dispositions 29

Episodes of Emotion 30

Moods and Sentiments 30

Emotional Disorders 30

Personality and Temperament 30

Summary 31

To Think About and Discuss 31

Further Reading 31

2 Evolution of Emotions 32

Elements of an Evolutionary Approach 33

Selection Pressures 33

Adaptation 35

Natural Design for Gene Replication 37

An Evolutionary History of Human Emotions 41

Insights from Modern Hunter-Gatherers 41

Insights from Nonhuman Primates 43

Human Ancestry 47

Evolution of Symbolic Representation and Language 49

Emotions as Bases of Human Relationships 51

Emotions That Promote Attachment 52

Emotions and Negotiation of Social Hierarchy 54

Emotions, Affiliation, and Friendship 54

Collective Emotion and Preference for In-Groups 55

Summary 57

To Think About and Discuss 57

Further Reading 58

3 Cultural Understandings of Emotions 59

An Island Society 60

Two Emotional Events 60

Three Principles: Emotions as Interpersonal, Active, and Value-based 61

Cross-cultural Approaches to Emotion 62

Identity 62

Independent and Interdependent Selves 63

Knowledge Structures 65

Values 67

The Construction of Emotions in the West 69

The Coming of Civilization to Medieval Societies 69

Has Violence Declined Over Time? 71

The Romantic Era 73

Sexual Love in the West 75

Falling in Love: Emotion as a Role 75

Women and Men: Different Cultures? 78

Integrating Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches 78

Summary 80

To Think About and Discuss 81

Further Reading 81

Part II Elements of Emotions 83

4 Communication of Emotions 85

Five Kinds of Nonverbal Behavior 88

Facial Expressions of Emotion 91

Darwin's Observations and Theoretical Analysis 91

Early Evidence of the Universality of Facial Expressions of Emotion 93

Critiques of the Ekman and Friesen Studies 95

Discovering New Facial Expressions of Emotion 96

Inference and Context in Emotion Recognition 99

Vocal Communication of Emotion 102

The Communication of Emotions with the Voice 104

Tactile Communication of Emotion 107

Four Functions of Touch 107

Communicating Emotions with Touch 108

Emotional Expression and the Coordination of Social Interaction 109

Cultural Variation in Emotional Expression 111

Cultural Variation in Expressive Behavior 111

Cultural Variation in the Interpretation of Emotional Expression 112

Communication of Emotion in Art 113

Four Hypotheses from the Idea of Romanticism 114

Aesthetic Emotions in the Natyasastra 115

Summary 117

To Think About and Discuss 118

Further Reading 118

5 Bodily Changes and Emotions 119

Early Theorizing About Emotion and Bodily Changes 120

Emotion and the Autonomic Nervous System 122

Directed Facial Action and Physiological Differentiation of Negative Emotion 123

Autonomic Response and Positive Emotion 125

Vagal Tone and Compassion 126

The Blush 126

The Chills 128

Emotion and the Neuroendocrine System 130

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis 130

Emotion and the Immune System 132

The Inflammation Response 132

Bodily Changes and Emotional Experience 134

Representations of Emotions in the Body 135

Interoception 137

Embodiment, Cognition, and Social Interaction 138

Gut Feelings and Decision Making 140

Embodied Empathy 141

Summary 142

To Think About and Discuss 142

Further Reading 142

6 Appraisal, Experience, Regulation 143

Appraisal and Emotion 144

Historical Background and Concepts 144

Primary Appraisals, Good and Bad 145

Which is Stronger, Good or Bad? 147

Secondary Appraisals 148

Discrete Approaches 148

Dimensional Approaches 149

Extending Appraisal Research: Tests of Theories and Patterns of Variation 152

A Third Phase of Appraisal: Verbal Sharing 154

Words and Concepts 155

The Emotion Lexicon 155

Conceptualization of Emotion 156

Emotion Metaphors 156

Prototypes 157

Variations in Emotion Lexicon 158

Emotional Experience 160

The Perspective That Emotions are Discrete 161

The Perspective That Emotions are Constructed 162

Comparing Perspectives 163

Regulation of Emotions 164

Distraction, Reappraisal, Suppression 165

Summary 168

To Think About and Discuss 168

Further Reading 168

7 Brain Mechanisms and Emotion 169

Historical Approaches to the Neuroscience of Emotion 170

Early Research on Brain Lesions and Stimulation 174

The Limbic System 174

Emotion Systems in the Mammalian Brain 175

A Framework from Affective Neuroscience 177

Emotion-Related Appraisals and Subcortical Processes in the Brain 177

Appraisals of Novelty and Concern Relevance: The Amygdala 178

Appraisals of Possible Rewards: The Nucleus Accumbens 180

Appraisals of Pain, Threat, and Harm: The Periaqueductal Gray 182

Bodily Awareness and Subjective Feeling: The Anterior Insular Cortex 183

From Conceptualization to Empathic Understanding: Cortical Processes in the Brain 184

Learning Associations Between Events and Rewards: The Orbitofrontal Cortex 184

Emotion Conceptualization: The Prefrontal Cortex 185

Emotion Regulation: Regions of the Prefrontal Cortex 188

Empathy and the Cortex 189

Social Pain and the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Anterior Insular Cortex 190

The Search for Emotion-Specific Patterns of Brain Activation 192

Distinct Emotions are Constructed in the Cortex 192

Emotions Engage Discrete Patterns of Brain Activation 192

Summary 195

To Think About and Discuss 195

Further Reading 195

Part III Emotions and Social Life 197

8 Development of Emotions in Childhood 199

Theories of Emotional Development 201

Emotional Expression 2…