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Iver P. Cooper is a retired patent attorney and is an independent researcher in the history of science and technology. He lives in Arlington, Virginia.

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Many people may know about the blazing crash of the Hindenburg in 1937 but are possibly unaware that it had made 62 flights before its final journey (including one transporting author Leslie Charteris, creator of The Saint). The disaster, however, did not end the airship era; blimps escorted convoys during World War II and were a part of air defense systems in the 1950s and 1960s. Airships still fly today, and new models are in the construction phase.

This book examines this branch of aviation history, delving into the science and engineering of airships and their design flaws, weather difficulties and operational errors. The chapters focus on function (lift, propulsion, materials, ground handling and so forth). The book concludes with speculations about future airship designs and missions.

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Table of Contents

Preface
Abbreviations
Selected Airship Alphanumeric Designations
Chapter 1.irships 101
What Is an Airship? Airship Successes The Forces on an Airship Airship Design Goals; Airship Size; Airship Shape
Chapter 2.uoyant (Aerostatic) Lift
Milestones in Airship (and Balloon) Lift; The Creation of Buoyancy; Specific Lift; Gross Aerostatic Lift; Hydrogen Versus Helium; Hydrogen Production and Purity; Helium Production and Purity; Inflating the Airship; Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on Specific Lift; Superheating and Supercooling; Superpressure; Maximum Gas Capacity; Altitude Effects; Thermal Airships: Hot Air; Rozier (Multigas) Airships; The Problem with Vacuum Lift
Chapter 3.ropulsion System
Milestones in Airship Propulsion; Propulsion System Components; Propulsors; Power Transmission; Propulsive Efficiency; Engines; Internal Combustion Engine Performance; Altitude Effects on Internal Combustion Engine Performance; Engine Efficiency, Overall Efficiency and Fuel Consumption; Sizing the Engine; Auxiliary Power Draw; Power and Weight; "Golden Age" Airship Engines; Later Airship Engines; Number of Engines; Propeller (and Engine) Location; Propulsion System Controls; Propulsion System Monitoring; Engine Reliability; Engine Cooling; Fuel Tanks
Chapter 4.hrust and Drag
Dirigibility; Aerodynamic Drag; Power, Propulsive Efficiency, and Speed; Propulsion Scaling Rules; Airship Size and Power; Airspeed (Engine Power) Selection; The Drag Coefficient and the Reynolds Number; Drag Measurement; Prediction of Drag
Chapter 5.on-Buoyant (Aerodynamic) Lift
Aerodynamic Lift Force; The Effect of Profile Shape; The Effect of Aspect Ratio; Lift-Induced Drag; Component Contributions to Lift and Lift-Induced Drag: Experimental Dat; Effect of Aerodynamic Lift and Drag on Airspeed (Engine Power) Selection; Aerodynamic Lift Measurements; Lift-Induced Drag Measurements
Chapter 6.ltitude (Net Total Lift) Control
The Problem of Altitude Control; Venting (or Burning) Lift Gas; Shipboard Production of Lift Gas (Hydrogen); Dropping Ballast; Re-Ballasting; Drag Rope (Recoverable Ballast); Temperature Manipulation; Dynamic Lift (Positive or Negative)0; Directed Thrust1; Burning Gaseous Fuels3; Other Methods3
Chapter 7.rientation Stability and Control
Terminology4; Pitching, Yawing and Rolling Moments4; Stability and Control5; Effect of Pitch6; Effect of Yaw8; Trim8; Lift Gas Surge and Pitching Moment9; Intrinsic Pitch Stability9; Pitch and Yaw Stabilizing Surfaces0; Longitudinal (Pitch) Control0; Yaw (Directional) Control1; Roll Stability2; Reversing Speed3
Chapter 8.akeoff, Landing, and Ground Handling
Weighing Off6; Unmoored Takeoff and Landing7; Ground Crew9; Forces on a "Walked" Airship0; Wind Flow Near Hangars3; Mechanical Aids4; Miscellaneous Ground Handling Issues5
Chapter 9.angars
Hangar Siting8; Stationary Hangars8; Hangar Entrances2; Temporary (Demountable) Hangars3; Rotating (Floating) Hangars5; Floating, Non-Rotating Hangars7; Rotating (Mechanical) Hangars7; Circular or Many-Sided Hangars9
Chapter 10.ooring Systems
Stationary (Permanent) Mooring Systems1; Temporary and Portable Masts8; Mobile Masts0; Auxiliary Mooring Equipment6; Mooring Procedure6; Mastless Mooring at Se8; Water Takeoffs and Landings9; Miscellaneous Ship-Based Operations0; Forest Clearing Havens2; Emergency Field Expedients2
Chapter 11.light Operations
Ascending and Descending5; Cruising Altitude6; Turning (Circling)6; Route Planning7; The Wind Triangle8; Wind Speed and Altitude1; Navigation3; Pressure Pattern Flying4; Other Weather Considerations5; Flight Controls6; Communications7
Chapter 12.tructure
Envelope Construction8; Superpressure9; Simple Aerostat Envelope Accessories0; Semirigid Airships: Keel Design1; Multilobal Airships3; Compound Aerostats3; Rigid Airships5; Car Suspension1; Cars (Gondolas) and Internal Space3; Empennage4; Miscellaneous Structural Features5; Airship Shapes5
Chapter 13.tresses on an Airship Hull
Simple Aerostats: The Need for Superpressure9; Simple Aerostats: The Hull as a Pressure Vessel0; Gas Pressure in a Rigid Airship1; Transverse Forces on an Airship Hull1; Resistance to Bending by Nonrigid Airship2; Resistance to Bending by a Semirigid Airship3; Resistance to Bending by Metalclad4; Force Transfer in a Rigid Airship4; The Hull as a Simple Beam5; The Effect of Stresses on the Length-to-Diameter Ratio8; Distortion of the Airship Cross Section9; Temperature Stresses in Rigid Airships0; Anticipated Aerodynamic Loads: Level Flight0; Aerodynamic Loads from Flight Maneuvers1; Aerodynamic Loads from Gusts2; Water Models3; Deflated (or Inflated) Gasbag Test4; Finite Element Analysis5; Safety Factors6
Chapter 14.aterials
Flexible Materials8; Environmental Protection Materials9; High Specific Strength, Flexible Materials1; Gas Containment Criteri5; Gas Containment Materials7; Historical Laminates0; Modern Laminates4; Holes and Tears5; Structural Materials6
Chapter 15.eight Estimation
Weight Classification0; Surface Are0; Weight Efficiency1; Detailed Empty Weight Breakdowns3; Historical Attempts at Weight Estimation6; Weight Estimation for Modern Nonrigid Airships1; Operating Load5
Chapter 16.irship Failures and Accidents
Causative and Contributory Factors6; Accident Contexts7; Loss of the R101: Case Study3; Loss of USS Macon: Case Study4; Personal Injuries in Airship Accidents4
Chapter 17.iery Deaths and Hydrogen Embrittlement
Fire and Explosion Risks from Lift Gases and Fuels6; Non-Hydrogen Fires7; Hydrogen Fires7; The Hindenburg Disaster0; Increasing Hydrogen Safety2; Hydrogen Embrittlement3
Chapter 18.he Future of Airships
Unmanned Airships8; Hybrid (Semibuoyant) Lift8; Solar-Electric Propulsion1; Lift Gas Compression2; Missions for Future AirshipsBR>
Conclusion
Appendices:
A.acuum Lift
Failure by Crushing5; Failure by Buckling7; Akhmeteli's Layered Shell8; Metlen's Reinforced Spheres8; Barton Inflatable Vacuum Chamber (IVC) Design8; Additional Vacuum Lift Proposals9
B.rediction of Zero-Lift Drag
Frictional Drag Coefficient, Flat Plate (Cf)1; Reference Are2; Shape Factor2; Beyond the Fineness Ratio3; Complete Rigging Analysis4; Rigging Factor5; Accuracy of Drag Coefficient Predictions7
C.rediction of Lift and Lift-Induced Drag
Tail (Stabilizer) Contribution9; Elevator Contribution1; Hull Contribution1; Car Contribution3
D.ot-Air Lift: Alternatives to Propane Burner Fuel
E.hermal Airships: Steam Lift
F.et Lift Control by Liquefaction of Lift Gas
Helium8; Ammoni8; Water Vapor (Steam)0
G.et Lift Control by Liquefaction of Gaseous Fuel
H.izing the Empennage
I.ydrogen Degradation of Polymers
J.alculation of Maximum Bending Moment from Gusts
K.dditional Materials Data
Notes
Bibliography
Index