Lithium-Sulfur Batteries

A guide to lithium sulfur batteries that explores their materials, electrochemical mechanisms and modelling and includes recent scientific developments

Lithium Sulfur Batteries (Li-S) offers a comprehensive examination of Li-S batteries from the viewpoint of the materials used in their construction, the underlying electrochemical mechanisms and how this translates into the characteristics of Li-S batteries. The authors - noted experts in the field - outline the approaches and techniques required to model Li-S batteries.

Lithium Sulfur Batteries reviews the application of Li-S batteries for commercial use and explores many broader issues including the development of battery management systems to control the unique characteristics of Li-S batteries. The authors include information onsulfur cathodes, electrolytes and other components used in making Li-S batteries and examine the role of lithium sulfide, the shuttle mechanism and its effects, and degradation mechanisms. The book contains a review of battery design and:

• Discusses electrochemistry of Li-S batteries and the analytical techniques used to study Li-S batteries

• Offers information on the application of Li-S batteries for commercial use

• Distills years of research on Li-S batteries into one comprehensive volume

• Includes contributions from many leading scientists in the field of Li-S batteries

• Explores the potential of Li-S batteries to power larger battery applications such as automobiles, aviation and space vehicles

Written for academic researchers, industrial scientists and engineers with an interest in the research, development, manufacture and application of next generation battery technologies, Lithium Sulfur Batteries is an essential resource for accessing information on the construction and application of Li-S batteries.

Autorentext

DR. MARK WILD is Senior Production Manager at OXIS Energy, leading a diverse team manufacturing electrolytes and electrodes for Lithium Sulfur pouch cells, but involved in all aspects of developing this new technology. OXIS Energy is a UK SME devoted to the global commercialization of LithiumSulfur batteries. DR. GREGORY J. OFFER is Reader in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Imperial College London. He leads a group of researchers working on understanding and using electrochemical devices.

Klappentext
A GUIDE TO LITHIUMSULFUR BATTERIES THAT EXPLORES THEIR MATERIALS, ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISMS AND MODELLING, AND INCLUDES RECENT SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENTS LithiumSulfur Batteries offers a comprehensive examination of LithiumSulfur (Li-S) batteries from the viewpoint of the materials used in their construction, the underlying electrochemical mechanisms and how this translates into the characteristics of Li-S batteries. The authors noted experts in the field outline the approaches and techniques required to model Li-S batteries. LithiumSulfur Batteries reviews the application of Li-S batteries for commercial use and explores many broader issues including the development of battery management systems to control the unique characteristics of Li-S batteries. The authors include information on sulfur cathodes, electrolytes and other components used in making Li-S batteries and examine the role of lithium sulfide, the shuttle mechanism and its effects, and degradation mechanisms. The book contains a review of battery design and:

• Discusses electrochemistry of Li-S batteries and the analytical techniques used to study Li-S batteries
• Offers information on the application of Li-S batteries for commercial use
• Distills years of research on Li-S batteries into one comprehensive volume
• Includes contributions from many leading scientists in the field of Li-S batteries
• Explores the potential of Li-S batteries to power larger battery applications such as automobiles, aviation and space vehicles Written for academic researchers, industrial scientists and engineers with an interest in the research, development, manufacture and application of next generation battery technologies, LithiumSulfur Batteries is an essential resource for accessing information on the construction and application of Li-S batteries.

Inhalt
Preface xiii

Part I Materials 1

**1 Electrochemical Theory and Physics 3
**Geraint Minton

1.1 Overview of a LiS cell 3

1.2 The Development of the Cell Voltage 5

1.2.1 Using the Electrochemical Potential 7

1.2.2 Electrochemical Reactions 10

1.2.3 The Electric Double Layer 13

1.2.4 Reaction Equilibrium 15

1.2.5 A Finite Electrolyte 17

1.2.6 The Need for a Second Electrode 17

1.3 Allowing a Current to Flow 19

1.3.1 The Reaction Overpotential 20

1.3.2 The Transport Overpotential 21

1.3.3 General Comments on the Overpotentials 22

1.4 Additional Processes Which Define the Behavior of a LiS Cell 22

1.4.1 Multiple Electrochemical Reactions at One Surface 22

1.4.2 Chemical Reactions 23

1.4.3 Species Solubility and Indirect Reaction Effects 25

1.4.4 Transport Limitations in the Cathode 25

1.4.5 The Active Surface Area 26

1.4.6 Precipitate Accumulation 27

1.4.7 Electrolyte Viscosity, Conductivity, and Species Transport 27

1.4.8 Side Reactions and SEI Formation at the Anode 28

1.4.9 Anode Morphological Changes 29

1.4.10 Polysulfide Shuttle 29

1.5 Summary 30

References 30

**2 Sulfur Cathodes 33
**Holger Althues, Susanne Dörfler, Sören Thieme, Patrick Strubel and Stefan Kaskel

2.1 Cathode Design Criteria 33

2.1.1 Overview of Cathode Components and Composition 33

2.1.2 Cathode Design: Role of Electrolyte in Sulfur Cathode Chemistry 34

2.1.3 Cathode Design: Impact on Energy Density on Cell Level 35

2.1.4 Cathode Design: Impact on Cycle Life and Self-discharge 36

2.1.5 Cathode Design: Impact on Rate Capability 37

2.2 Cathode Materials 37

2.2.1 Properties of Sulfur 37

2.2.2 Porous and Nanostructured Carbons as Conductive Cathode Scaffolds 39

2.2.2.1 Graphite-Like Carbons 39

2.2.2.2 Synthesis of Graphite-like Carbons 39

2.2.2.3 Carbon Black 40

2.2.2.4 Activated Carbons 41

2.2.2.5 Carbide-Derived Carbon 42

2.2.2.6 Hard-Template-Assisted Carbon Synthesis 42

2.2.2.7 Carbon Surface Chemistry 43

2.2.3 Carbon/Sulfur Composite Cathodes 43

2.2.3.1 Microporous Carbons 44

2.2.3.2 Mesoporous Carbons 45

2.2.3.3 Macroporous Carbons and Nanotubebased Cathode Systems 46

2.2.3.4 Hierarchical Mesoporous Carbons 47

2.2.3.5 Hierarchical Microporous Carbons 49

2.2.3.6 Hollow Carbon Spheres 50

2.2.3.7 Graphene 51

2.2.4 Retention of LiPS by Surface Modifications and Coating 51

2.2.4.1 Metal Oxides as Adsorbents for Lithium Polysulfides 56

2.3 Cathode Processing 57

2.3.1 Methods for C/S Composite Preparation 57

2.3.2 Wet (Organic, Aqueous) and Dry Coating for Cathode Production 58

2.3.3 Alternative Cathode Support Concepts (Carbon Current Collectors, Binder-free Electrodes) 59

2.3.4 Processing Perspective for Carbons, Binders, and Additives 59

2.4 Conclusions 59

References 61

**3 Electrolyte for LithiumSulfur Batteries 71
**Marzieh Barghamadi, Mustafa Musameh, Thomas Rüther, Anand I. Bhatt, Anthony F. Hollenkamp and Adam S. Best

3.1 The Case for Better Batteries 71

3.2 LiS Battery: Origins and Principles 72

3.3 Solubility of Species and Electrochemistry 74

3.4 Liquid Electrolyte Solutions 75

3.5 Modified Liquid Electrolyte Solutions 91

3.5.1 Variation in Electrolyte Salt Concentration 91

3.5.2 Mixed OrganicIonic Liquid Electrolyte Solutions 91

3.5.3 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte Solutions 93

3.6 Solid and Solidified Electrolyte Configurations 96

3.6.1 Polymer Electrolytes 96

3.6.1.1 Absorbed Liquid/Gelled Electrolyte 96

3.6.1.2 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 98 3.6.2 Non-pol...