Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering

A multidisciplinary reference of engineering measurement tools, techniques, and applications

"When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely in your thoughts advanced to the stage of science." -- Lord Kelvin

Measurement is at the heart of any engineering and scientific discipline and job function. Whether engineers and scientists are attempting to state requirements quantitatively and demonstrate compliance; to track progress and predict results; or to analyze costs and benefits, they must use the right tools and techniques to produce meaningful data.

The Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is the most comprehensive, up-to-date reference set on engineering and scientific measurements--beyond anything on the market today. Encyclopedic in scope, Volume 3 covers measurements in physics, electrical engineering and chemistry:

• Laser Measurement Techniques

• Magnetic Force Images using Capacitive Coupling Effect

• Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

• Measurement of Light and Color

• The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation

• Measuring Time and Comparing Clocks

• Laboratory-Based Gravity Measurement

• Cryogenic Measurements

• Temperature-Dependent Fluorescence Measurements

• Voltage and Current Transducers for Power Systems

• Electric Power and Energy Measurement

• Chemometrics for the Engineering and Measurement Sciences

• Liquid Chromatography

• Mass Spectroscopy Measurements of Nitrotyrosine-Containing Proteins

• Fluorescence Spectroscopy

• X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy

• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

• Near Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy

• Nanomaterials Properties

• Chemical Sensing

Vital for engineers, scientists, and technical managers in industry and government, Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering will also prove ideal for academics and researchers at universities and laboratories.

Autorentext

Myer Kutz holds engineering degrees from RPI and MIT. He was Vice President and General Manager of Wiley's STM division and has consulted and authored for most of the major professional and technical publishing houses. He is the author of 7 books and the editor of more than 20 handbooks.

Inhalt
VOLUME 3

List of Contributors xxi

PREFACE xxv

Part VII Physics and Electrical Engineering 1943

**54 Laser Measurement Techniques 1945
**Cecil S. Joseph, Gargi Sharma, Thomas M. Goyette, and Robert H. Giles

54.1 Introduction, 1945

54.1.1 History and Development of the MASER, 1945

54.1.2 Basic Laser Physics, 1946

54.1.3 Laser Beam Characteristics, 1951

54.1.4 Example: CO2 Laser Pumped FarInfrared Gas Laser Systems, 1956

54.1.5 Heterodyned Detection, 1959

54.1.6 Transformation of Multimode Laser Beams from THz Quantum Cascade Lasers, 1962

54.1.7 Suggested Reading, 1965

54.2 Laser Measurements: LaserBased Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems, 1965

54.2.1 ISAR Theory, 1966

54.2.2 DFT in Radar Imaging, 1967

54.2.3 Signal Processing Considerations: Sampling Theory, 1970

54.2.4 Measurement Calibration, 1971

54.2.5 Example Terahertz Compact Radar Range, 1972

54.2.6 Suggested Reading, 1974

54.3 Laser Imaging Techniques, 1974

54.3.1 Imaging System Measurement Parameters, 1975

54.3.2 Terahertz Polarized Reflection Imaging of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers, 1981

54.3.3 Confocal Imaging, 1985

54.3.4 Optical Coherence Tomography, 1987

54.3.5 Femtosecond Laser Imaging, 1990

54.3.6 Laser Raman Spectroscopy, 1996

54.3.7 Suggested Reading, 1997

References, 1997

**55 Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect 2001
**Byung I. Kim

55.1 Introduction, 2001

55.2 Experiment, 2004

55.2.1 Principle, 2004

55.2.2 Instrumentation, 2004

55.2.3 Approach, 2005

55.3 Results and Discussion, 2006

55.3.1 Separation of Topographic Features from Magnetic Force Images Using Capacitive Coupling Effect, 2007

55.3.2 Effects of LongRange TipSample Interaction on Magnetic Force Imaging: A Comparative Study Between BimorphDriven System and Electrostatic Force Modulation, 2012

55.4 Conclusion, 2020

References, 2021

**56 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 2025
**KwokWai Ng

56.1 Introduction, 2025

56.2 Theory of Operation, 2026

56.3 Measurement of the Tunnel Current, 2030

56.4 The Scanner, 2032

56.5 Operating Mode, 2035

56.6 Coarse Approach Mechanism, 2036

56.7 Summary, 2041

References, 2042

**57 Measurement of Light and Color 2043
**John D. Bullough

57.1 Introduction, 2043

57.2 Lighting Terminology, 2043

57.2.1 Fundamental Light and Color Terms, 2043

57.2.2 Terms Describing the Amount and Distribution of Light, 2047

57.2.3 Terms Describing Lighting Technologies and Performance, 2048

57.2.4 Common Quantities Used in Lighting Specification, 2052

57.3 Basic Principles of Photometry and Colorimetry, 2056

57.3.1 Photometry, 2056

57.3.2 Colorimetry, 2063

57.4 Instrumentation, 2072

57.4.1 Illuminance Meters, 2072

57.4.2 Luminance Meters, 2072

57.4.3 Spectroradiometers, 2074

References, 2074

**58 The Detection and Measurement of Ionizing Radiation 2075
**Clair J. Sullivan

58.1 Introduction, 2075

58.2 Common Interactions of Ionizing Radiation, 2076

58.2.1 Radiation Interactions, 2076

58.3 The Measurement of Charge, 2077

58.3.1 Counting Statistics, 2078

58.3.2 The Two Measurement Modalities, 2080

58.4 Major Types of Detectors, 2081

58.4.1 Gas Detectors, 2081

58.4.2 Ionization Chambers, 2086

58.4.3 Proportional Counters, 2090

58.4.4 GM Detectors, 2092

58.4.5 Scintillators, 2092

58.4.6 Readout of Scintillation Light, 2094 58.4.7 ...